Codex in Motion: Food Safety Standard Setting and Impacts on Developing Countries’ Agricultural Exports

The Codex Alimentarius, or ‘food code’, was established to set international standards ensure the safety and quality of food agricultural products while at same time creating a level playing field for trade. However, less is known about duration setting process in committees, extent which trade impacted when are delayed versus cases adoption accelerated. This article reviews evaluates three case studies were rapidly adopted: Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) levels cinnamon; melamine milk powder; guidance procedures melons. Two recent have been held up also considered: maximum aflatoxins ready-to-eat peanuts; cadmium chocolate. We find evidence that accelerated an important catalyst facilitating exports by some developing countries. Delays non-adoption standards, on other hand, can lead significant export underperformance certain countries regions. Thus, members would do well reflect positive flow benefits be realised among who depend earnings. Le ou « code alimentaire », été établi pour établir des normes internationales visant à garantir la sécurité et qualité produits alimentaires agricoles tout en créant conditions équitables le commerce international. Cependant, sait moins sur durée du processus d’élaboration dans les comités mesure laquelle est affecté lorsque sont retardées par rapport aux cas d'adoption accélérée. Cet passe revue évalue trois études de lesquelles ont adoptées rapidement : niveaux dioxyde soufre cannelle; mélamine lait poudre; procédures d'orientation Deux récents lesquels bloquées également considérés teneur maximale aflatoxines arachides prêtes consommer; celle chocolat. Nous constatons que l'adoption accélérée un catalyseur facilitant exportations certains pays développement. Les retards Codex, contre, peuvent conduire une sous-performance régions. Ainsi, membres feraient bien réfléchir avantages positifs termes flux commerciaux qui être obtenus développement dépendent leurs recettes d'exportation. Der oder “Lebensmittelkodex” wurde ins Leben gerufen, um internationale Standards zur Gewährleistung der Sicherheit und Qualität von Lebensmitteln landwirtschaftlichen Produkten festzulegen damit auch gleiche Wettbewerbsbedingungen für den internationalen Handel zu schaffen. Es ist jedoch wenig bekannt über die Dauer Verfahrens Standardsetzung Codex-Ausschüssen. Ebenso das Ausmaß Beeinträchtigung Handels, wenn sich verzögern Fällen, denen Annahme beschleunigt wurde. In diesem Artikel werden drei Fallstudien untersucht bewertet, Codex-Standards schnell angenommen wurden: Schwefeldioxid (SO2)-Gehalte Zimt, Melaminstandards Milch Milchpulver Codex-Richtlinienverfahren im Fall Melonen. Zwei neuere Fälle, verzögert haben, ebenfalls betrachtet: Höchstgehalte Aflatoxinen verzehrfertigen Erdnüssen Kadmium Schokolade. Wir haben Hinweise darauf gefunden, dass beschleunigte ein wichtiger Katalysator ist, Exporte einiger Entwicklungsländer erleichtert. Verzögerungen Nichtannahme hingegen können bestimmten Ländern Regionen einer erheblichen Exportleistung führen. Daher würden Codex-Mitglieder gut daran tun, diese Vorteile Bezug auf Handelsströme reflektieren. Die könnten Entwicklungsländern zugutekommen, ihre Exporteinnahmen abhängig sind. Alimentarius Commission (CAC) plays central role global system. considered ‘international standard’ used as national regulation often reference litigate World Trade Organization (WTO) disputes. While work committees1 receives considerable attention reference, they recognised ‘battlegrounds [that] center most prominent disputes over within trading system’ (Josling al., 2004, p. 54). Diverse across regulatory traditions culture, but highly contentious, because imply costs market access difficulties with differing systems. CAC attempts bridge these differences agreeing internationally accepted standards; include provisions hygiene, additives, pesticide residues, veterinary drugs contaminants, labelling presentation, methods analysis sampling, import inspection certification. practical terms, this means standard standard, item item, each potential contaminant, residue level, additive hygiene issue, has negotiated time-consuming procedure. According Food Agriculture Health (FAO/WHO, 2018), its 56-year history, produced: more than 4,100 (MLs) additives; 5,200 limits (MRLs) 300 pesticides; 600 MRLs covering 63 drugs; 200 commodity 100 MLs 18 contaminants food. harmonisation globally may ultimate goal, pragmatically it difficult achieve. Both developed must balance reductions human health risks against economic production associated ‘appropriate’ ‘reasonable’ 188 member nations one organisation, European Union (EU). There several instances protracted, put hold, discontinued. Factors contributing delays reaching agreement include: (1) concerns respect WTO implications ‘status requirements differ from being developed, hence challenge’; (2) ‘non-science issues’ specified ‘consumer opinions preferences, impact consumer confidence, prohibition legislation, etc’; (3) question how deal ‘with situations where objections not based either sound science factors applicable’ (CAC, 2012: para. 18, 40, 43, 51). Examples discontinued (i) General processed cheese, 2017 after 10 years discussion no consensus; (ii) MRL ivermectin beef, new scientific information Joint Expert Committee Additives (JECFA); (iii) dry mixtures cocoa sugars sold final consumption, limited Other examples Non-centrifuged dehydrated sugar cane juice, 2019 discussion; Bovine Somatotropin (BST) Zilpateral agenda since 1998 2012, respectively; ML methylmercury amberjack swordfish 2018 low concentration lack consensus. Finally, there issues continue plague governments negotiators high-income markets such US EU, despite existence (Wieck Rudloff, 2020). As Josling Tangermann (2016) note: ‘… issue [EU] banning so-called “chlorine chicken” now battle cries those EU opposed TTIP’ (p. 3). al. (2004) conclude, system much gain well-designed rigorously enforced regulations target hazards threaten undermine confidence supply. Sri Lanka had problems Ceylon cinnamon EU. These pose challenges exporters, particularly countries, least two reasons. First, lower-income sufficient capacity technical expertise evaluate, develop implement their own standards. Second, empirical suggests benefit harmonised (Beghin 2015; Murina Nicita, 2017). objective assess selected case-study decisions evaluate agri-food focus Specifically, we review decision CAC; summarise last ten number under consideration CAC, effects five standards: consensus achieved accelerated, remain future discussion. follows fixed procedure setting. Any participating observer propose begin submitting project document relevant committee, ‘detailing need timeframe relative priority’ 2018, 17). If main body agrees (Step 1), 8-step followed. Much takes place committees (e.g. Contaminants Fresh Fruits Vegetables). At Step 2, drafted; 3, circulated Members, comments 4; 5 allows committee preliminary adoption; Steps 6 7 provide additional comment; 8 transmittal adoption. adopted, becomes part (the code’). points along first steps (1–2), point subsequently start standard. During following (3–8) committee(s) revise organisations approved (preliminary adoption) (adoption), respectively. theoretically could blocked any process, likely occur points. Consequently, Table 1 summarises newly proposed work, hold 2010 present. On average, 16 proposals (or modified) year, 33 adopted. adopted exceeds submitted. additives drugs, only proposal submitted includes group initiated. stage (step 8) note further extreme, dealing use (bST) back decade, cannot agree formulation Appendix VI 2019: App. V IV III II discuss formulating ongoing 2014, step 5/8 omitted. 4.2 ‘significantly [time] Maximum Residue Levels levels’ 7). Five analysis. They chosen because: country regions terms earnings; contrast compared expedited. follows: Accelerated Adopted Delayed It should noted development deliberative given nature performing study analysis, limitations regarding representativity inference towards larger apply. particular, affected difficulty meeting authorities. reviewer if meet importing countries’ stricter impacts presented here full spectrum winners losers similarity generally supportive (Disdier 2019; Grant Arita, Moreover, Agreement Application Sanitary Phytosanitary Measures (Article 3) encourages (but does obligate) harmonise measures focusing somewhat polarising us shed light delays. addition, econometrically analysed supporting our descriptive findings (see Wieck Grant, Differences length making seen comparing average approximately (Figure 1). incidences reported, shows rather quick times ranging 1–2 years. chocolate peanuts however, taken long, up. Source: Authors’ illustration. what follows, study. scare incident automatically Codex. companies bring government officials so raised Members initiate drafting none exist. encountered consignments exported detection containing SO2, EU's imports prevented sizeable share Lanka's entering market. Given importance Lanka, 29th Session Geneva July 2006,2 (ML) 150 mg/kg sulphites (including sulphur dioxide) category 12.2.1 ‘Herbs spices’ Standard (GSFA). 2008, China's powdered found contain involving intentional adulteration (Huang, 2014). Forty seven received melamine-contaminated products, disrupted – sometimes zero absence science-based A WHO-FAO Meeting convened December 2008 provided Foods (CCCF) met March 2009. That establish finalised non-intentional unavoidable presence 2010. nearly 60 people North America became ill salmonella outbreak consuming melons (cantaloupe), including 50 consumers United States 9 Canada. Drug Administration (USFDA) issued public alert traced packing firm located Honduras. Honduras, needed guidelines effective mitigation practices reduce risk becoming unsafe consumption. 2010, Hygiene (CCFH), noting significance microbiological melons, agreed document. 2011. CCFH inter-session drafted guidance, 2011 sent 2012 session 5/8, proposed. Laboratory compliance. Chocolate cadmium, toxic heavy metal present soil plantations. high contamination classified carcinogen, naturally occurring substance environment volcanic activity, forest fires weathering. CCCF asked FAO/WHO (JECFA) conduct exposure assessment (i.e. chocolate). study, reported 2014,3 concluded total concern (WHO, 2013). Nevertheless, began ML, Consensus reached 2015 2016 meetings. 2017, working led Ecuador, Ghana Brazil, categorised cocoa-derived percentage content solids. meeting, general support 0.3mg/kg 30 per cent Norway advocated lower 0.1mg/kg ‘ensure protection, particular children’ consistent assessment. See https://ec.europa.eu/food/sites/​food/files/​safet​y/docs/codex_cac_42_cl_2019-46-cccf.pdf, 1. solids, recommendation 5/8. Chair said compromise even though result higher rejection rate Latin American Caribbean draft stalled Codex's (CAC). time, African expressed sufficiently stringent lines 0.3mg/kg), jeopardise able 0.3mg/kg) required 5, adoption, leaving out 7, rejected remains agenda. codex importers (more stringent) Developing potentially delay establishing Ecuador ($30 million Colombia ($70 million), Brazil ($111 ($43 Egypt ($170 Cote d'Ivoire ($140 million) Malaysia ($308 million). worked aflatoxin 2014. Despite JECFA assessment, reach appropriate ML. 4 CCCF. disagreement basis this. Low-income Nicaragua ($110 peanut Senegal ($190 Malawi ($17 South Sudan ($52 Myanmar ($113 India ($447 Paraguay ($10 third largest producer exporter cinnamon. From 2000–2016 value Lankan increased five-fold $32 2000 $160 (FAOSTAT, Seventy-four Top destination Mexico, Following establishment late 2006, aligned swift illustrated Figure EU-28 (left axis), (US) Mexico (right-axis) Lanka. Since 2007, significantly annual growth cent. increase countries: factor 2.5 3.25, respectively, 2005–2006 period (comparison EU: 3.5). Increases simply due price effect. volume EU-28, 5.4 cent, 5.5 2.1 calculations Data Monitor. direct outcomes around observed HS 040120 (milk cream concentrated) 040210 powders solid form infant use) Beginning corresponding powder supply, milk/cream (040120) fell $30 2007 $15 (040210) $26 $5 domestic governing practices, fluid recovered, increasing $25 2018. recovery volatile, perhaps owing fact scares beyond Monitor (TDM). Honduran melon cantaloupe honeydew (HS 080719), watermelon 080711) Honduras's partners: US, Canada 4). Prior 2015, Honduras relatively small player never exceeding $40 product category. 2016, guidelines, watermelons order magnitude, $34 $0.70 $90 $36 2019, representing 3- 30-fold just facilitated illustrates For example, brief lull during 2013–2017 period, $12 $20 $1.2 million, Similarly, doubled $24 $54 million. action ‘best practices’ mitigating microbial throughout production, handling marketing chain described above, discussions chocolate, dichotomy interests between (collectively referred CCAFRICA) (CCLAC). tighter roughly one-third discussed relevance CCAFRICA's primary beans exports. CCAFRICA worth $4.2 billion CCLAC almost $500 concerning impacting left panel traces world measure regions’ market, and, right panel, Africa (CCAFRICA), Asia (CCASIA), list individual belonging official at: http://www.fao.org/fao-who-codex​alime​ntari​us/commi​ttees/​codex-regio​ns/en/. clarity context, CCEURO (other non-EU-28 Switzerland) CCNASWP (North West Pacific) exporting combined $4 2019. Near East (CCNEA) very little EU-28. graphic demonstrates CCASIA exporters $2.0 smaller interesting one-half one-quarter reverse true plot (right graphic, 5). exceeded both four. contrasting picture CCLAC's explanation why standard-setting seems complicated. yet upon peanuts. measured through analysing own, Codex-proposed (10-15μg/kg) MLs, 4μg/kg uses nuts: processing. To best knowledge, tolerances 6, symmetric bilateral intensity index large region exporters. Positive (negative) values intense (weak) relationship vis-à-vis competing rest-of-world Box details). exception earlier sample (2001–2005), regional indices universally negative suggesting weaker expected declined precipitously coincides policy amendment aflatoxins, scores falling below –0.50 By lowest all BACI numerator BTTI i's j. denominator (w) normalises j numerator) RoW's denominator). Because shares partner (numerator) (denominator) ranges infinity. SBTTI relationship; neutral neither nor weak) exists approaches zero; weak one. CCASIA's relationship. trending suggest producers firms adjusting 5) 6). remained stable stronger suppliers capable imposed Collectively, LAC explain prolongation level. losses investigated dioxide ready-to-peanuts resulted When delayed, progress nationally legislated Non-harmonised compliance difficulties, systems comply different country-specific economically large, whereas exports, growth. Conversely, felt region, gains 2015. fails adopt rely diminishes ability export, monitor imports, protect consumers. accelerates significant. complete generalisation challenging underlying bundle, existing technology infrastructure Notwithstanding, implication clear: promote low-income consequently serve tool. “When significant.” “Lorsque accélère travaux adopter norme, réalisés individuels économiquement significatifs.” “Wenn Arbeiten eines beschleunigt, einzelnen erzielten Gewinne aus Handelsströmen großer wirtschaftlicher Bedeutung sein.” research funded Department ‘USDA Foreign Agricultural Service (FAS) Research’ grant. Open funding enabled organized Projekt DEAL.